Electron micrographs of nasal cilia from patients with primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) illustrating dynein defects. Panel A illustrates ultrastructure of a normal cilium from nasal epithelium of a healthy, clinically unaffected subject. The adjacent panels are from three different PCD patients. Panel B illustrates absence of the inner and outer dynein arms; Panel C shows absence of the outer dynein arms only; and Panel D shows absence of the inner dynein arms only.
Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Genetics in Medicine. Leigh MW, Pittman JE, Carson JL, et al. Clinical and Genetic Aspects of Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia/Kartagener Syndrome. Genet Med 2009; 11:473. Copyright © 2009.
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