(1) Trauma: |
(2) Vascular: |
Intracavernous carotid artery aneurysm |
Posterior cerebral artery aneurysm |
Carotid-cavernous fistula |
Carotid-cavernous thrombosis |
Posterior communicating artery aneurysm |
Internal carotid artery dissection |
(3) Neoplasm: |
Primary intracranial tumour |
Pituitary adenoma |
Meningioma |
Craniopharyngioma, others |
Primary cranial tumour |
Chordoma, others |
Local metastases |
Nasopharyngeal tumour |
Squamous cell carcinoma |
Distant metastases |
Lymphoma |
Multiple myeloma |
Carcinomatous metastases |
(4) Inflammation, infection: |
Bacterial |
Contiguous sinusitis |
Mucocele (sphenoid sinus) |
Periostitis |
Abcess |
Viral |
Herpes zoster |
Fungal |
Mucormycosis, Actinomycosis |
Spirochetal |
Treponema pallidum |
Mycobacterial |
Mycobacterium tuberculosis |
Others |
Sarcoidosis |
Granulomatosis with polyangiitis |
Eosinophilic granuloma |
Tolosa-Hunt syndrome |
Orbital pseudotumor |
(5) Miscellaneous: |
Diabetic ophthalmoplegia |
Ophthalmoplegic migraine |
Giant cell arteritis |
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