- Infections in the oropharynx:
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- Gingivitis, oropharyngeal candidiasis (thrush), dental caries
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- Inflammation in the oropharynx:
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- Sjögren's syndrome, effects of radiation (external bean, radioactive iodine), atrophic glossitis, laryngopharyngeal reflux
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- Bell's palsy, trauma, surgery, radiation
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- Vitamin and mineral deficiencies:
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- B12 deficiency, zinc deficiency
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- Metabolic and endocrine disorders:
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- End-stage kidney disease (ESKD), hypothyroidism, diabetes mellitus
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- Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, Guillain-Barré syndrome, multiple sclerosis
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- Environmental and chemical exposures:
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- Tobacco use (smoked and chewed), chemicals (eg, organophosphates, methyl acrylate), metals and metalloids (eg, mercury, copper, zinc, chromium, arsenic, lead)
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