Altered consciousness |
Alcoholism, seizures, head trauma, general anesthesia, drug overdose |
Dysphagia |
Esophageal disorders including stricture, neoplasm, diverticula, tracheoesophageal fistula, incompetent cardiac sphincter, achalasia, oropharyngeal obstruction, xerostomia |
Neurologic disorder |
Cerebrovascular accident, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson disease, myasthenia gravis, pseudobulbar palsy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis |
Mechanical disruption of the usual defense barriers |
Nasogastric tube, endotracheal intubation, tracheostomy, upper gastrointestinal endoscopy, bronchoscopy |
Other |
Protracted vomiting, gastric outlet obstruction, large-volume nasogastric tube feedings, pharyngeal anesthesia, general debility, recumbent position, ascites, gastroparesis, ileus, glottic insufficiency (eg, vocal cord paralysis) |
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