Postmarketing cases of metformin-associated lactic acidosis have resulted in death, hypothermia, hypotension, and resistant bradyarrhythmias. The onset of metformin-associated lactic acidosis is often subtle, accompanied only by nonspecific symptoms, such as malaise, myalgias, respiratory distress, somnolence, and abdominal pain. Metformin-associated lactic acidosis was characterized by elevated blood lactate levels (>5 mmol/L), anion gap acidosis (without evidence of ketonuria or ketonemia), an increased lactate/pyruvate ratio; and metformin plasma levels generally >5 mcg/mL.
Risk factors for metformin-associated lactic acidosis include renal impairment, concomitant use of certain drugs (eg, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors such as topiramate), age 65 years or older, having a radiological study with contrast, surgery and other procedures, hypoxic states (eg, acute congestive heart failure), excessive alcohol intake, and hepatic impairment.
Steps to reduce the risk of and manage metformin-associated lactic acidosis in these high risk groups are provided in the full prescribing information.
If metformin-associated lactic acidosis is suspected, immediately discontinue linagliptin and metformin and institute general supportive measures in a hospital setting. Prompt hemodialysis is recommended.
Note: Due to lack of additive glycemic benefit, avoid use of linagliptin in combination with glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist-based therapies. May require a dose reduction of insulin and/or insulin secretagogues (sulfonylureas, meglitinides) to avoid hypoglycemia (Ref).
Diabetes mellitus, type 2, treatment:
Note: Additional therapeutic considerations may apply; refer to individual agents for information.
Initial dosage:
Patients taking metformin: Oral: Linagliptin 5 mg per day plus current daily dose of metformin administered in 2 divided daily doses (immediate release) or once daily (extended release).
Patients not taking metformin: Oral: Linagliptin 5 mg/metformin 1 g per day administered in 2 divided daily doses (immediate release) or once daily (extended release).
Dosage adjustment: May adjust metformin component gradually if needed to achieve glycemic targets (maximum: linagliptin 5 mg/metformin 2 g per day).
Conversion from immediate release to extended release product: May switch to ER product containing linagliptin 5 mg and current daily dose of metformin given once daily.
Dosage adjustment for concomitant therapy: Significant drug interactions exist, requiring dose/frequency adjustment or avoidance. Consult drug interactions database for more information.
eGFR >45 mL/minute/1.73 m2: No dosage adjustment necessary.
eGFR 30 to 45 mL/minute/1.73 m2:
Initiation of therapy: Use of linagliptin/metformin is not recommended for initiation of therapy; refer also to individual agents.
Continuation of existing therapy: If eGFR falls to <45 mL/minute/1.73 m2 during therapy, consider benefits/risks of continuing therapy. If continuing therapy, a metformin dosage reduction of 50% (maximum: 1 g/day) and close monitoring of kidney function is recommended (Ref).
eGFR <30 mL/minute/1.73 m2: Use is contraindicated.
The manufacturer recommends avoiding metformin since liver disease is considered a risk factor for the development of lactic acidosis during metformin therapy. However, continued use of metformin in patients with diabetes and chronic liver disease with impaired hepatic function may be associated with a survival benefit in carefully selected patients; use cautiously in patients at risk for lactic acidosis (eg, renal impairment, alcohol use) (Ref).
Refer to adult dosing. The initial and maintenance dosing should be conservative, due to the potential for decreased renal function (monitor).
The following adverse drug reactions and incidences are derived from product labeling unless otherwise specified. Also see individual agents.
1% to 10%:
Gastrointestinal: Diarrhea (6%)
Respiratory: Nasopharyngitis (6%)
Frequency not defined:
Dermatologic: Pruritus
Endocrine & metabolic: Lactic acidosis
Gastrointestinal: Decreased appetite, nausea, pancreatitis, vomiting
Hypersensitivity: Hypersensitivity reaction (including angioedema)
Respiratory: Cough
Postmarketing: Neuromuscular & skeletal: Severe arthralgia (FDA Safety Alert, Aug 28, 2015)
US labeling: Hypersensitivity (eg, anaphylaxis, angioedema, exfoliative skin conditions, urticaria, bronchial hyperreactivity) to linagliptin, metformin, or any component of the formulation; severe renal impairment (eGFR <30 mL/minute/1.73 m2); acute or chronic metabolic acidosis, including diabetic ketoacidosis.
Canadian labeling: Hypersensitivity to linagliptin, metformin, or any component of the formulation; severe renal impairment (eGFR <30 mL/minute/1.73 m2), end-stage renal disease, dialysis, or when renal function is not known; severe hepatic dysfunction; unstable and/or insulin-dependent (Type 1) diabetes mellitus; acute or chronic metabolic acidosis, including diabetic ketoacidosis, with or without coma, history of ketoacidosis with or without coma; history of lactic acidosis regardless of precipitating factors; excessive alcohol intake (acute or chronic); cardiovascular collapse and disease states associated with hypoxemia such as cardiorespiratory insufficiency that often are associated with hyperlactacidemia; stress conditions (eg, severe infection, trauma or surgery, and postoperative recovery phase); severe dehydration or shock; pregnancy; breastfeeding; period of time around administration of iodinated contrast materials.
Concerns related to adverse effects:
• Arthralgia: Severe and disabling arthralgia has been reported with DPP-4 inhibitor use; onset may occur within one day to years after treatment initiation and may resolve with discontinuation of therapy. Some patients may experience a recurrence of symptoms if DPP-4 inhibitor therapy resumed.
• Bullous pemphigoid: DPP-4 inhibitor use has been associated with development of bullous pemphigoid; cases have typically resolved with topical or systemic immunosuppressive therapy and discontinuation of DPP-4 inhibitor therapy. Advise patients to report development of blisters or erosions.
• Hypersensitivity reactions: Rare hypersensitivity reactions (including anaphylaxis, angioedema, and exfoliative skin conditions) have been reported in patients treated with linagliptin. Events have generally been noted within the first 3 months of therapy, and may occur with the initial dose. Use with caution if patient has experienced angioedema with other DPP-4 inhibitor use.
• Lactic acidosis: Lactic acidosis should be suspected in any patient with diabetes receiving metformin with evidence of acidosis but without evidence of ketoacidosis. Discontinue use in patients with conditions associated with dehydration, hypoperfusion, sepsis, or hypoxemia. Temporarily discontinue therapy in patients with restricted food and fluid intake. The risk of accumulation and lactic acidosis increases with the degree of impairment of renal function.
• Pancreatitis: Cases of acute pancreatitis, including fatalities, have been reported with linagliptin. Use with caution in patients with a history of pancreatitis as it is not known if this population is at greater risk.
• Vitamin B12 concentrations: Long-term metformin use is associated with vitamin B12 deficiency.
Disease-related concerns:
• Bariatric surgery:
– Altered absorption: Use IR tablets after surgery. Absorption may be altered given the anatomic and transit changes created by gastric bypass and sleeve gastrectomy surgery. ER tablets may have a reduced effect after gastric bypass or sleeve gastrectomy due to the direct bypass of the stomach and proximal small bowel with gastric bypass or a more rapid gastric emptying and proximal small bowel transit with sleeve gastrectomy (Mechanick 2020; Melissas 2013). After gastric bypass (Roux-en-Y gastric bypass [RYGB]), administration of IR tablets led to increased absorption (AUC0-∞ increased by 21%) and bioavailability (increased by 50%) (Padwal 2011). Lactate levels decrease after gastric bypass (RYGB)-induced weight loss irrespective of the use of metformin. Routinely lowering metformin dose after gastric bypass is not necessary as long as normal renal function is preserved (Deden 2018).
– Glucagon-like peptide-1 exposure and therapeutic efficacy: Closely monitor for signs and symptoms of pancreatitis; gastric bypass and sleeve gastrectomy may increase endogenous secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 (Korner 2009; Peterli 2012). A single-dose, placebo-controlled study evaluated short-term therapy (4 weeks) with sitagliptin in gastric bypass patients having persistent or recurrent type 2 diabetes and found it to be well tolerated and provided a small but significant reduction in postprandial blood glucose (Shah 2018).
• Heart failure: Metformin may be used in patients with stable heart failure; use cautiously or avoid in hypoperfusion (ADA 2023). Linagliptin may also be considered in patients with heart failure, although other agents with proven heart failure benefit are preferred (ADA 2023; McGuire 2018; Rosenstock 2018).
• Hepatic impairment: Use metformin cautiously in patients at risk for lactic acidosis (Brackett 2010; Crowley 2017; Zhang 2014).
• Renal impairment: Metformin is substantially excreted by the kidney; the risk of metformin accumulation and lactic acidosis increases with degree of renal impairment. Use of concomitant medications that may affect renal function (ie, affect tubular secretion) may also affect metformin disposition. Metformin should be withheld in patients with dehydration and/or prerenal azotemia.
• Stress-related states: It may be necessary to discontinue metformin and administer insulin if the patient is exposed to stress (eg, fever, trauma, infection, surgery).
Special populations:
• Older adult: Use with caution; risk of metformin associated lactic acidosis increases with age.
Other warnings/precautions:
• Appropriate use: Not for use in patients with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) or patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus.
• Ethanol use: Instruct patients to avoid excessive acute or chronic ethanol use; ethanol may potentiate metformin's effect on lactate metabolism.
• Iodinated contrast: Administration of iodinated contrast agents has been associated with postcontrast acute kidney injury; in patients taking metformin, acute decreases in renal function have been associated with an increased risk of lactic acidosis due to reduced metformin excretion (ACR 2021; manufacturer’s labeling). Refer to metformin monograph for additional information.
• Surgical procedures: Metformin-containing products should be withheld the day of surgery; restart after renal function is stable (ADA 2023).
Excipient information presented when available (limited, particularly for generics); consult specific product labeling.
Tablet, oral:
Jentadueto 2.5/500: Linagliptin 2.5 mg and metformin hydrochloride 500 mg
Jentadueto 2.5/850: Linagliptin 2.5 mg and metformin hydrochloride 850 mg
Jentadueto 2.5/1000: Linagliptin 2.5 mg and metformin hydrochloride 1000 mg
Tablet Extended Release, oral:
Jentadueto XR 2.5/1000: Linagliptin 2.5 mg and metformin hydrochloride 1000 mg
Jentadueto XR 5/1000: Linagliptin 5 mg and metformin hydrochloride 1000 mg
No
Tablet, 24-hour (Jentadueto XR Oral)
2.5-1000 mg (per each): $10.50
5-1000 mg (per each): $21.00
Tablets (Jentadueto Oral)
2.5-500 mg (per each): $10.50
2.5-850 mg (per each): $10.50
2.5-1000 mg (per each): $10.50
Disclaimer: A representative AWP (Average Wholesale Price) price or price range is provided as reference price only. A range is provided when more than one manufacturer's AWP price is available and uses the low and high price reported by the manufacturers to determine the range. The pricing data should be used for benchmarking purposes only, and as such should not be used alone to set or adjudicate any prices for reimbursement or purchasing functions or considered to be an exact price for a single product and/or manufacturer. Medi-Span expressly disclaims all warranties of any kind or nature, whether express or implied, and assumes no liability with respect to accuracy of price or price range data published in its solutions. In no event shall Medi-Span be liable for special, indirect, incidental, or consequential damages arising from use of price or price range data. Pricing data is updated monthly.
Oral: Administer with food at the same time(s) each day. ER tablet: Swallow whole; do not split, crush, dissolve, or chew.
Bariatric surgery: Tablet, extended release: Some institutions may have specific protocols that conflict with these recommendations; refer to institutional protocols as appropriate. Switch to IR separate components. Oral diabetes medications may be held in the immediate postoperative period due to low carbohydrate diet and gut hormone shifts induced by surgery.
An FDA-approved patient medication guide, which is available with the product information must be dispensed with this medication:
Jentadueto: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2022/201281s031lbl.pdf#page=21
Jentadueto XR: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2023/201281s035,208026s024lbl.pdf#page=45,
Diabetes mellitus type 2, treatment: As an adjunct to diet and exercise to improve glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Linagliptin and Metformin may be confused with Sitagliptin and Metformin
Refer to individual components.
Note: Interacting drugs may not be individually listed below if they are part of a group interaction (eg, individual drugs within “CYP3A4 Inducers [Strong]” are NOT listed). For a complete list of drug interactions by individual drug name and detailed management recommendations, use the drug interactions program by clicking on the “Launch drug interactions program” link above.
Abemaciclib: May increase the serum concentration of MetFORMIN. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Alcohol (Ethyl): May enhance the adverse/toxic effect of MetFORMIN. Specifically, excessive alcohol ingestion (acute or chronic) may potentiate the risk of lactic acidosis. Risk X: Avoid combination
Alpha-Lipoic Acid: May enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Antidiabetic Agents. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Androgens: May enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Agents with Blood Glucose Lowering Effects. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Beta-Blockers (Beta1 Selective): May enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Antidiabetic Agents. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Beta-Blockers (Nonselective): May enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Antidiabetic Agents. Beta-Blockers (Nonselective) may diminish the therapeutic effect of Antidiabetic Agents. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Bortezomib: May enhance the therapeutic effect of Antidiabetic Agents. Bortezomib may diminish the therapeutic effect of Antidiabetic Agents. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors: May enhance the adverse/toxic effect of MetFORMIN. Specifically, the risk of developing lactic acidosis may be increased. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Cephalexin: May increase the serum concentration of MetFORMIN. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Cimetidine: May increase the serum concentration of MetFORMIN. Management: Consider alternatives to cimetidine in patients receiving metformin due to a potential for increased metformin concentrations and toxicity (including lactic acidosis). Risk D: Consider therapy modification
CYP3A4 Inducers (Moderate): May decrease the serum concentration of LinaGLIPtin. Risk C: Monitor therapy
CYP3A4 Inducers (Strong): May decrease the serum concentration of LinaGLIPtin. Management: Strongly consider using an alternative to any strong CYP3A4 inducer in patients who are being treated with linagliptin. If this combination is used, monitor patients closely for evidence of reduced linagliptin effectiveness. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Direct Acting Antiviral Agents (HCV): May enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Antidiabetic Agents. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Dofetilide: MetFORMIN may increase the serum concentration of Dofetilide. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Dolutegravir: May increase the serum concentration of MetFORMIN. Management: Consider alternatives to this combination or use of lower metformin doses. Carefully weigh the risk of metformin toxicities (including lactic acidosis) against the benefit of combining dolutegravir with metformin. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Etilefrine: May diminish the therapeutic effect of Antidiabetic Agents. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Fexinidazole: May increase the serum concentration of MATE1/2-K Substrates (Clinically Relevant with Inhibitors). Management: Avoid use of fexinidazole with MATE1/2-K substrates when possible. If combined, monitor for increased MATE1/2-K substrate toxicities. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Fexinidazole: May increase the serum concentration of OCT2 Substrates (Clinically Relevant with Inhibitors). Management: Avoid use of fexinidazole with OCT2 substrates when possible. If combined, monitor for increased OCT2 substrate toxicities. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Fludeoxyglucose F 18: MetFORMIN may diminish the diagnostic effect of Fludeoxyglucose F 18. Management: Consider holding metformin for 48 hours or longer prior to PET scans using fludeoxyglucose F18 (FDG-F18) when imaging of the colon or intestine is required. Consider increased monitoring of blood glucose when metformin is held. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Foslevodopa: May increase the serum concentration of MATE1/2-K Substrates (Clinically Relevant with Inhibitors). Risk C: Monitor therapy
Gilteritinib: May increase the serum concentration of OCT1 Substrates (Clinically Relevant with Inhibitors). Risk C: Monitor therapy
Givinostat: May increase the serum concentration of OCT2 Substrates (Clinically Relevant with Inhibitors). Risk C: Monitor therapy
Glycopyrrolate (Systemic): May increase the serum concentration of MetFORMIN. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Guanethidine: May enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Antidiabetic Agents. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Guar Gum (Partially Hydrolyzed): May decrease the serum concentration of MetFORMIN. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Hyperglycemia-Associated Agents: May diminish the therapeutic effect of Antidiabetic Agents. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Hypoglycemia-Associated Agents: Antidiabetic Agents may enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Hypoglycemia-Associated Agents. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Insulins: Dipeptidyl Peptidase-IV Inhibitors may enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Insulins. Management: Consider a decrease in insulin dose when initiating therapy with a dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitor and monitor patients for hypoglycemia. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Iodinated Contrast Agents: May enhance the adverse/toxic effect of MetFORMIN. Renal dysfunction that may be caused by iodinated contrast agents may lead to metformin-associated lactic acidosis. Management: Management advice varies. Refer to the full drug interaction monograph content for details. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
LamoTRIgine: May increase the serum concentration of MetFORMIN. Management: The lamotrigine Canadian product monograph states that coadministration of these drugs is not recommended. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Maitake: May enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Agents with Blood Glucose Lowering Effects. Risk C: Monitor therapy
MATE1/2-K Inhibitors: May increase the serum concentration of MetFORMIN. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Mavorixafor: May decrease the serum concentration of MetFORMIN. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Methylol Cephalexin: May increase the serum concentration of MetFORMIN. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors: May enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Agents with Blood Glucose Lowering Effects. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agents: May enhance the adverse/toxic effect of MetFORMIN. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Ombitasvir, Paritaprevir, and Ritonavir: May enhance the adverse/toxic effect of MetFORMIN. Specifically, the risk for lactic acidosis may be increased. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Ombitasvir, Paritaprevir, Ritonavir, and Dasabuvir: May enhance the adverse/toxic effect of MetFORMIN. Specifically, the risk for lactic acidosis may be increased. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Ondansetron: May increase the serum concentration of MetFORMIN. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Pacritinib: May increase the serum concentration of OCT1 Substrates (Clinically Relevant with Inhibitors). Risk X: Avoid combination
Patiromer: May decrease the serum concentration of MetFORMIN. Management: Administer metformin at least 3 hours before or 3 hours after patiromer. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Pegvisomant: May enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Agents with Blood Glucose Lowering Effects. Risk C: Monitor therapy
P-glycoprotein/ABCB1 Inducers: May decrease the serum concentration of LinaGLIPtin. Management: Strongly consider using an alternative to any P-glycoprotein inducer in patients who are being treated with linagliptin. If this combination is used, monitor patients closely for evidence of reduced linagliptin effectiveness. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Prothionamide: May enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Agents with Blood Glucose Lowering Effects. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Quinolones: May enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Agents with Blood Glucose Lowering Effects. Quinolones may diminish the therapeutic effect of Agents with Blood Glucose Lowering Effects. Specifically, if an agent is being used to treat diabetes, loss of blood sugar control may occur with quinolone use. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Ranolazine: May increase the serum concentration of MetFORMIN. Management: Limit the metformin dose to a maximum of 1,700 mg per day when used together with ranolazine 1,000 mg twice daily. Monitor patients for metformin toxicities, including lactic acidosis and carefully weigh the risks and benefits of this combination. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Risdiplam: May increase the serum concentration of MATE1/2-K Substrates (Clinically Relevant with Inhibitors). Management: Avoid use of risdiplam with MATE substrates if possible. If the combination cannot be avoided, monitor closely for adverse effects. Consider a reduced dose of the MATE substrate according to that substrate's labeling if appropriate. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Ritodrine: May diminish the therapeutic effect of Antidiabetic Agents. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Salicylates: May enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Agents with Blood Glucose Lowering Effects. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors: May enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Agents with Blood Glucose Lowering Effects. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Sulfonylureas: Dipeptidyl Peptidase-IV Inhibitors may enhance the hypoglycemic effect of Sulfonylureas. Management: Consider a decrease in sulfonylurea dose when initiating therapy with a dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitor and monitor patients for hypoglycemia. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Tafenoquine: May increase the serum concentration of MATE1/2-K Substrates (Clinically Relevant with Inhibitors). Management: Avoid use of MATE substrates with tafenoquine, and if the combination cannot be avoided, monitor closely for evidence of toxicity of the MATE substrate and consider a reduced dose of the MATE substrate according to that substrate's labeling. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Tafenoquine: May increase the serum concentration of OCT2 Substrates (Clinically Relevant with Inhibitors). Management: Avoid use of OCT2 substrates with tafenoquine, and if the combination cannot be avoided, monitor closely for evidence of toxicity of the OCT2 substrate and consider a reduced dose of the OCT2 substrate according to that substrate's labeling. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Thiazide and Thiazide-Like Diuretics: May diminish the therapeutic effect of Antidiabetic Agents. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Topiramate: May enhance the adverse/toxic effect of MetFORMIN. Specifically, the risk for lactic acidosis may be increased. MetFORMIN may increase the serum concentration of Topiramate. Topiramate may increase the serum concentration of MetFORMIN. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Verapamil: May diminish the therapeutic effect of MetFORMIN. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Vitamin K Antagonists (eg, warfarin): MetFORMIN may diminish the anticoagulant effect of Vitamin K Antagonists. Vitamin K Antagonists may enhance the hypoglycemic effect of MetFORMIN. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Metformin may increase ovulation in premenopausal anovulatory patients resulting in unintended pregnancies.
Refer to individual monographs for additional information.
Metformin crosses the placenta (ADA 2023).
Refer to individual monographs for information related to the treatment of diabetes mellitus in pregnancy.
Metformin is present in breast milk; it is not known if linagliptin is present in breast milk.
According to the manufacturer, the decision to breastfeed during therapy should consider the risk of infant exposure, the benefits of breastfeeding to the infant, and benefits of treatment to the mother.
Refer to individual monographs for additional information.
Individualized medical nutrition therapy based on ADA recommendations is an integral part of therapy.
Plasma glucose (individualize frequency based on treatment regimen, hypoglycemia risk, and other patient-specific factors) (ADA 2023). Monitor renal function (eGFR) prior to therapy initiation and at least annually or at least every 3 to 6 months if eGFR is <60 mL/minute/1.73 m2 (KDIGO 2020). Monitor hematologic parameters (eg, hemoglobin/hematocrit, red blood cell indices) annually; folate if megaloblastic anemia is suspected; signs/symptoms of pancreatitis; signs/symptoms of heart failure. Monitor vitamin B12 concentrations every 1 to 2 years, particularly in patients who have been treated with metformin for ≥4 years, or in patients with peripheral neuropathy, anemia, or risk factors for vitamin B12 deficiency (eg, malabsorption syndromes, reduced dietary intake) (ADA 2023; KDIGO 2020; manufacturer’s labeling).
HbA1c: Monitor at least twice yearly in patients who have stable glycemic control and are meeting treatment goals; monitor quarterly in patients in whom treatment goals have not been met, or with therapy change. Note: In patients prone to glycemic variability (eg, patients with insulin deficiency), or in patients whose HbA1c is discordant with serum glucose levels or symptoms, consider evaluating HbA1c in combination with blood glucose levels and/or a glucose management indicator (ADA 2023; KDIGO 2020).
Recommendations for glycemic control in patients with diabetes:
Nonpregnant adults (AACE [Samson 2023]; ADA 2023):
HbA1c: <7% (a more aggressive [<6.5%] or less aggressive [<8%] HbA1c goal may be targeted based on patient-specific characteristics). Note : In patients using a continuous glucose monitoring system, a goal of time in range >70% with time below range <4% is recommended and is similar to a goal HbA1c <7%.
Preprandial capillary blood glucose: 80 to 130 mg/dL (SI: 4.4 to 7.2 mmol/L) (more or less stringent goals may be appropriate based on patient-specific characteristics).
Peak postprandial capillary blood glucose (~1 to 2 hours after a meal): <180 mg/dL (SI: <10 mmol/L) (more or less stringent goals may be appropriate based on patient-specific characteristics).
Older adults (≥65 years of age) (ADA 2023):
Note: Consider less strict targets in patients who are using insulin and/or insulin secretagogues (sulfonylureas, meglitinides) (ES [LeRoith 2019]).
HbA1c: <7% to 7.5% (healthy); <8% (complex/intermediate health). Note: Individualization may be appropriate based on patient and caregiver preferences and/or presence of cognitive impairment. In patients with very complex or poor health (ie, limited remaining life expectancy), consider making therapy decisions based on avoidance of hypoglycemia and symptomatic hyperglycemia rather than HbA1c level.
Preprandial capillary blood glucose: 80 to 130 mg/dL (SI: 4.4 to 7.2 mmol/L) (healthy); 90 to 150 mg/dL (SI: 5 to 8.3 mmol/L) (complex/intermediate health); 100 to 180 mg/dL (SI: 5.6 to 10 mmol/L) (very complex/poor health).
Bedtime capillary blood glucose: 80 to 180 mg/dL (SI: 4.4 to 10 mmol/L) (healthy); 100 to 180 mg/dL (SI: 5.6 to 10 mmol/L) (complex/intermediate health); 110 to 200 mg/dL (SI: 6.1 to 11.1 mmol/L) (very complex/poor health).
Classification of hypoglycemia (ADA 2023):
Level 1: 54 to 70 mg/dL (SI: 3 to 3.9 mmol/L); hypoglycemia alert value; initiate fast-acting carbohydrate (eg, glucose) treatment.
Level 2: <54 mg/dL (SI: <3 mmol/L); threshold for neuroglycopenic symptoms; requires immediate action.
Level 3: Hypoglycemia associated with a severe event characterized by altered mental and/or physical status requiring assistance.
Linagliptin inhibits dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4) enzymes resulting in prolonged active incretin levels. Incretin hormones [eg, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) regulate glucose homeostasis by increasing insulin synthesis and release from pancreatic beta cells and decreasing glucagon secretion from pancreatic alpha cells. Decreased glucagon secretion results in decreased hepatic glucose production. Under normal physiologic circumstances, incretin hormones are released by the intestine throughout the day and levels are increased in response to a meal; incretin hormones are rapidly inactivated by DPP-4 enzymes.
Metformin decreases hepatic glucose production, decreasing intestinal absorption of glucose, and improves insulin sensitivity (increases peripheral glucose uptake and utilization).
See individual agents.
Do you want to add Medilib to your home screen?